Han Dynasty Earthenware Ming qi Lidded Vessel decorated with a red and blue geometric design around the outside body of the vessel with unusual motifs on the lid showing three figures, all with human bodies and an animal head, resembling the horse-necked deity referred to as Hayagriva. The Hayagriva is one of the avatars of Lord Vishnu worshipped in Hindu mythology, he is the God of knowledge and wisdom.
We would think It extremely rare to see a figure of the Hayagriva deity, (one of the avatars of Vishnu} on Han Dynasty funerary objects, This suggests that during the later Han Dynasty when Buddhism was first introduced into China by Buddhist monks from India, Vaishnavism would also have had an influence on some people as Vaishnavite traditions were intertwined with Buddhism. Vaishnavism and Tantric beliefs and practices did not become very popular or influential in China for various reasons:
Buddhism is one of the world’s oldest and most influential religions, originating in India around the 5th century BCE. Buddhism spread to many parts of Asia through the Silk Road, a network of trade routes that connected China, India, Central Asia, and other regions. Buddhism also interacted with other religious traditions, such as Hinduism, Daoism, and Confucianism, and influenced the culture, art, philosophy, and politics of various Asian civilizations.
There was a period of political stability, economic prosperity and culture during the Han Dynasty and a period when Chinese Buddhists adapted and transformed the Indian teachings to suit their own context and needs.
The Arrival of Buddhism in China
According to Chinese historical records, the first Buddhist missionaries arrived in China during the reign of Emperor Ming of Han (58 – 75 CE), who had a dream of a golden man flying into his palace. He sent envoys to the western regions to seek the teachings of this mysterious figure, who was identified as the Buddha. The envoys returned with two Indian monks, named She Moteng and Zhu Falan, who brought Buddhist scriptures and statues to China. They were welcomed by the emperor and given a place to translate the texts and preach the doctrine. Thus began the transmission of Buddhism to China via the Silk Road.
However, some scholars have argued that Buddhism may have reached China earlier than the official accounts suggest, as there is archaeological evidence of Buddhist artifacts and inscriptions dating back to the 1st century BCE in some parts of China. Moreover, there may have been indirect contact between Chinese and Indian cultures through trade, diplomacy, and migration before the arrival of the Buddhist monks. For example, some Chinese terms for spices, plants, animals, and musical instruments are derived from Sanskrit or Prakrit, indicating some degree of linguistic exchange.
The Development of Chinese Buddhism
The introduction of Buddhism in China faced many challenges it had to compete with the established religions of Daoism and Confucianism, which had deep roots in Chinese culture and society. On the other hand, Buddhism also benefited from the patronage of some emperors, nobles, and commoners who were attracted by its teachings of salvation, compassion, and morality. Buddhism also appealed to some people who were dissatisfied with the social and political turmoil that followed the collapse of the Han dynasty in the 3rd century CE.
Buddhism also had to adapt to the Chinese language, culture, and worldview. The translation of Buddhist scriptures from Sanskrit or other languages into Chinese was a monumental task that required not only linguistic skills but also philosophical creativity. Many Buddhist terms and concepts had no equivalent in Chinese or were easily confused with Daoist or Confucian ideas. Therefore, translators had to invent new terms or borrow existing ones from other sources to convey the meaning of the original texts. For example, the term “nirvana”, which means “extinction” or “cessation” in Sanskrit, was translated as “wuwei”, which means “non-action” or “effortlessness” in Daoism.
Another challenge for Chinese Buddhists was to reconcile the doctrine of no-self (anatman) with the belief in the immortality of the soul (Shen). The doctrine of no self teaches that there is no permanent or independent self or essence in any phenomenon or being; everything is impermanent, interdependent, and empty of inherent nature. The belief in the immortality of the soul teaches that there is a spiritual substance or principle that survives death and can be reborn in different realms of existence. These two views seem to be contradictory and incompatible.
However, some Chinese Buddhists found ways to harmonize them by interpreting them differently. For example, some argued that no-self does not mean non-existence but rather non-attachment; one should not cling to any false notion of self but rather realize one’s true nature as empty and luminous. Others argued that immortality does not mean permanence but rather transformation; one’s soul can change its form and location according to one’s karma (actions) and dharma (teachings). Thus,
The Popularity of Ming qi Funerary Objects during the Han Dynasty
The Han dynasty (206 BCE – 220 CE) was a period of great progress and innovation in early China. The visual arts flourished during this period with an increase in cultural sophistication. Spiritual thought of the period emphasized the continuity between this life and the life experienced after death. Tombs of important officials and landowners were lavishly decorated and stocked with everything the deceased might need in the next world, including favourite belongings, everyday items, and food. Striking ceramic representations of the deceased’s attendants, animals, model homes and granaries were among the objects that furnished the tombs.
Most funerary objects were made of earthenware, a type of clay that is fired at low temperatures and is porous and brittle. Earthenware was shaped by hand, wheel or by using moulds. The potters then applied slip (a thin layer of clay mixed with water) and pigments to create different colours and textures on the surface. The technique of glazing ceramics or pottery was introduced during the Han Dynasty.
The funerary objects reflect various aspects of Han dynasty life and beliefs. For example, figures of dancers, musicians, acrobats and entertainers show the importance of music and performance in Han culture. Figures of soldiers, horses, chariots and weapons show the military prowess and expansion of the Han empire. Figures of servants, attendants, cooks and farmers show the social hierarchy and division of labour in Han society. Figures of dogs, pigs, chickens and other domestic animals as well as miniature granaries show the agricultural practices and diet of the Han people.
Some funerary objects such as this Han Dynasty Earthenware Ming qi Lidded Vessel also have symbolic meanings that relate to the concept of immortality, and harmony in Han cosmology as well as religious beliefs. For example, towers and watchtowers represent the connection between heaven and earth, as well as protection from evil spirits. Granaries and wells represent abundance and prosperity. Lions and dragons represent power and authority. Phoenixes and cranes represent longevity and rebirth.
Funerary objects are valuable sources of information for historians and archaeologists who study Han Dynasty China. Since most of their above-ground counterparts were made of wood and have long since disintegrated, ming qi preserve details about architecture, technology, clothing, jewellery, hairstyles, facial features, gestures and expressions in Han China. They also reveal regional differences in styles, materials and customs across the vast territory of the Han Empire.
WU HUNG – The Art of the Yellow Springs: Understanding Chinese Tombs
